The Medical Aspects of the Crucifixion

One of the things I love to do is teach scriptural truth and the evidence behind it.  A couple years ago I had put together a talk on the medical aspects of the crucifixion using a JAMA article along with several others.  As we celebrated the death and resurrection of Jesus today, I thought that posting that lesson may be appropriate.  My hope is that you may glean some insights into the depth of love that God has for us as He willingly allowed this punishment on His one and only son.

 

-There are many aspects of the crucifixion, death and resurrection of Jesus (theology, evidence, prophecies [Psalm 22], etc.) – my focus here will be primarily on the medical aspects

-The first 11 chapters of Genesis are foundational for all scripture
-The death and resurrection of Jesus is the keystone that holds the structure together; without this being true, our faith is for nothing and we are to be the most pitied of all people (1 Corinthians 15:19)

-The last hours of Jesus’ life were filled with incredible amounts of grief, pain and suffering

-There are many sources of reliable information on the last hours of Christ and methods of crucifixion: first and foremost, the Bible; also Roman historians (Cornelius Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, Suetonius), non-Roman historians (Thallus and Phlegon; satirist Lucian of Samosata), Jewish historian (Flavius Josephus)

-Excruciating is probably one of the best descriptors of what he endured
Merriam-Webster defines as inflicting intense pain or torture
Comes from Latin excruciatus→ “out of the cross”

-In his last hours he had a sleepless night, was forced to walk ~2.5 miles, endured six trials, was ridiculed, mocked, beaten severely and abandoned by his friends and his Father

Gethsemane (Matthew 26:36-56; Mark 14:32-51; Luke 22:39-52; John 18:1-11)

-Jesus and the disciples observed the Passover meal in the upper room of a home in southwest Jerusalem
-They then walked to the Mount of Olives (northeast of the city)
-It is while in the Garden of Gethsemane that we first see the great anguish that Jesus was suffering

-We’re told that an angel appeared from heaven and strengthened him
-Luke (a physician) describes Jesus’ sweat becoming like blood
-Luke 22:44 → And being in anguish, he prayed more earnestly, and his sweat was like drops of blood falling to the ground.
-Matthew 26:38 → Then he said to them, “My soul is overwhelmed with sorrow to the point of death. Stay here and keep watch with me.”
-Hematidrosis (or hemohidrosis) → a rare phenomenon of sweating blood; occurs in individuals with bleeding disorders and also in people undergoing extreme stress
(only reported in world medical literature ~12-14 times)

-Pathophysiology: under great stress the numerous small blood vessels around sweat glands constrict tightly and as the anxiety begins to pass the vessels dilate and rupture causing blood to enter the sweat glands
-In extreme cases, can also cause mild to moderate dehydration due to sweat and blood loss (probably not that significant in this case)
-Side effect is that it causes the skin to be hypersensitive and fragile (increased levels of pain)
-Examples: Leonardo da Vinci describes soldiers preparing to enter battle and men given death sentences as suffering this condition
-In the environment of the cool evening, this would have likely produced chills

Trials – six in total (Matthew 26:57-27:26; Mark 14:53-Mark 15:15; Luke 22:66-23:25; John 18:12-40)

Jewish Trials

-Soon after midnight, Jesus was arrested at Gethsemane and taken to Annas
-Annas was the ex-high priest; he was still viewed as the official high priest in the eyes of the Jews even though the Romans had appointed another
-He then had a hearing before Caiaphas (who was the Jewish high priest) where he was found guilty of blasphemy
-Jesus was blindfolded, beaten and spat upon
-At daybreak, Jesus was tried before the religious Sanhedrin along with the Pharisees and the Sadducees (presumably at the temple) → again found guilty of blasphemy – a crime punishable by death

Roman Trials

-Approval for all death sentences had to come from the Roman government
-Therefore, Jesus was taken by temple officials to the Praetorium of the Fortress of Antonia (residence and governmental seat of Pontius Pilate-the procurator of Judea)
-Jesus was not presented as a blasphemer but instead as a self-appointed king who would undermine Roman authority
-Pilate saw that Jesus was innocent and made no charges against him
-He was sent to Herod Antipas – the tetrarch of Judea (done as a courtesy and guilt sharing act as Jesus was from Galilee which was Herod’s district)
-Herod was happy to see Jesus as he was hoping to see miracles performed
-Jesus did not perform for him and Herod along with his soldiers mocked Jesus
-When Jesus did not perform as expected, Herod wanted nothing to do with him
-He also made no official charges and then returned Jesus to Pilate

-Again, no basis for legal charges was found but the people demanded that Jesus be crucified
-Pilate feared another uprising that could cost him his job
-Pilate ultimately gave in and handed Jesus over to be scourged and crucified
-So, Pilate, wishing to satisfy the crowd, released to them Barabbas; but Jesus he scourged and delivered to be crucified. – Mark 15:15
(There were many illegal elements to these “trials”-won’t go over these here; these were not legitimate trials in any sense)

 

 

Scourging (Matthew 27:27-31; Mark 15:16-20; John 19:1-16)

-It is reasonable to assume that Jesus was relatively healthy prior to these events
-The travel required of his ministry precludes any major physical ailments and there is no mention of any type of condition in the scriptures or historical documents
-He is now sleep deprived (he has been up for ~36 hours), has not eaten or drank in hours and is under great distress (hemohidrosis); he was beaten and has walked several miles

-Flogging was a prerequisite of every Roman execution (only women, Roman senators, and soldiers [except those who were deserters] were exempt)

-A short whip called a flagellum or flagrum was used (can even see the flagellum as a symbol of Sol [the sun god] on an ancient Roman coin)
-It was generally made of two or three leather (ox-hide) thongs or ropes attached to a handle
-The leather thongs were knotted with several small pieces of metal (often zinc or
iron) at varied intervals → designed to cause deep contusions (would deeply bruise muscles and bone)
-Historical documents show that some criminal and slave punishments were even worse as the flagrum was knotted with pieces of sheep or cattle bone
-At times the Roman flagrum contained a hook at the end called a “scorpion” → designed to rip flesh
(A physician tried an experiment to determine the injury inflicted by one lashing. He found that one thong could make a cut ~2 inches long and ~ ¾-1 inch deep → could take up to 20 stitches to close)
(on occasion, a stave [thin strip of wood or rod] would be used instead of a flagrum)
-Jewish law describes the number of stripes as being forty less one (Deut 25:3)
-There was no such limit among Romans → this punishment was intended to weaken the victim to a state just short of collapse or death

-The victim would have their hands tied to a flogging post and they would be stripped naked to expose their flesh
-Often two “lictors” would alternate turns to prevent exhaustion
-These were professional torturers; strong Roman legionnaires (likely built like football players)
-The torn flesh, deep lacerations, exposed muscles, damaged blood vessels and profound bleeding would leave the victim in at least serious if not critical condition

-Severe blood loss would set the stage for orthostatic hypotension and possibly hypovolemic shock
-The amount of blood loss would in part determine how long a victim would survive on the cross
-The Centurion overseeing the flogging would determine when the “lictors” should stop – wanted the victim near death
-The gospel accounts do not describe in detail the harshness of Jesus’ scourging
-Some commentaries state that a word study of the Greek text of 1 Peter 2:24 indicates that his scourging was extremely harsh
(Remember that his skin would already be hypersensitive from the hemohydrosis)

-The Roman soldiers then continued mocking this increasingly frail man who claimed to be a king

-A crown of thorns was fashioned and placed on his head causing additional pain and bleeding
-The thorns commonly found in Israel are about 1 ½ – 2 inches long and are very sharp
-When laid on someone’s head and tapped down with a reed, the thorns were hard enough to penetrate the outer lining of the skull causing intense pain

-Remember when and why thorns have come to being – sin was the reason His flesh was pierced by thorns
-Genesis 3:17-18 → 17 To Adam he said, “Because you listened to your wife and ate fruit from the tree about which I commanded you, ‘You must not eat from it,’ “Cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you will eat food from it all the days of your life. 18 It will produce thorns and thistles for you, and you will eat the plants of the field.

-A scarlet robe was placed on his shoulders and a wooden staff was placed in his right hand
-He was spat upon and struck in the head with the staff while others mockingly kneeled before him
-The robe was then ripped from his back and his clothing placed back on him → this would have likely reopened the multiple wounds on his back causing additional pain and bleeding

-The beating and scourging were incredibly severe
-Movies and TV do an injustice to what happens to individuals when they are struck in the face
-By this time both of Jesus’ eyes were likely swollen shut, he probably had a very bloody nose, his lips are likely lacerated, and his face was disfigured
-When struck in the mouth, the lower teeth often and easily pierce through the lower lip
-Isaiah 50:6 → I offered my back to those who beat me, my cheeks to those who pulled out my beard; I did not hide my face from mocking and spitting.
-Isaiah 52:14 → Just as there were many who were appalled at him his appearance was so disfigured beyond that of any human being and his form marred beyond human likeness

-Before the crucifixion has even begun, Jesus has been beaten severely and is almost unrecognizable
-He has blood that has oozed from his pores and he is caked from head to toe with dried and still flowing blood
-His back, arms, legs and buttocks are literally torn to shreds
-He has been mocked, spat upon and ridiculed

 

 

Crucifixion (Matthew 27:35-56; Mark 15:21-41; Luke 23:26-49; John 19:16-37)

-Thought to have begun among the Persians between 300-400 B.C.
-Alexander the Great introduced the practice to Egypt and Carthage
-Romans appear to have learned of it from the Carthaginians
-Romans did not invent the practice but they perfected it as a form of punishment
-Designed to inflict maximum pain, torture and suffering followed by a slow and agonizing death
-Meant to terrorize and dissuade onlookers from committing similar crimes
-It was a punishment reserved primarily for slaves, foreigners, revolutionaries and the most depraved criminals
-Roman law protected Roman citizens from crucifixion except in cases of desertion by soldiers
-In early forms in Persia, victims were tied to trees or were tied/impaled to an upright post (designed to keep the victim’s feet off of the ground)
-Later a true cross was used → two parts: an upright post (stipes) and a horizontal crossbar (patibulum)
-Several varieties of cross have existed

Variations in Cross’s Used for Crucifixion
Latin Designation           Characteristics
lnfelix lignum                                     Tree
Crux simplex,                            Upright post
crux acuta
Crux composita                  Stipes and patibulum
Crux humilis                                Low cross
Crux sublimis                              Tall cross
Crux commissa                 T-shaped (Tau) cross
Crux immissa                 “cross”-shaped (Latin) cross
Crux capitata                  “cross”-shaped (Latin) cross
Crux decussata                      X-shaped cross

-Much archaeological and historical evidence suggests that the low Tau cross was preferred by Romans in Palestine at the time of Christ. Crucifixion practices varied within a geographic region and according to the preferences of the executioners
-Therefore the Latin cross or other forms may have been used

-It was customary for the condemned individual to carry his or her own cross from the flogging post to the site of crucifixion
-Often they were striped naked, unless this went against local customs
-Jesus was left in such a weakened state that he could not even carry the patibulum

-The distance from the Praetorium to the site of crucifixion was ~1/3 mile (about 600 yards)
-A bystander (Simeon of Cyrene) was summoned to carry the cross of Christ
-The naked carrying of the cross was designed to maximize shame and embarrassment
-The weight of the entire cross was likely near 300 lbs. so generally only the cross bar (or patibulum) was carried (weighed ~75-125 lbs.)
-Balanced across the shoulders with the arms tied on either end
-The procession was led by complete Roman military guard, headed by a centurion
-One soldier would carry a sign (titulus) that would display the condemned man’s name and crime – this would then be placed at the top of the cross

-Outside the city walls were permanently placed wooden stipes (upright bar) on which the patibulum would be affixed
-With the Tau cross, this was done by means of a mortise and tenon joint with or without rope reinforcement
-To prolong the crucifixion process, a horizontal block of wood was placed at the midway point of the stipes and served as a crude seat (sedile or sedulum)
-Very rarely, and probably later than the time of Christ, and additional block of wood (suppedaneum) was used for transfixion of the feet

-Upon arrival to Golgotha, Jesus’ clothes (with the exception of his loin cloth) were again ripped off reopening his wounds
-At the site of execution, by Jewish law, the victim was to be given a bitter drink of wine mixed with myrrh (gall) as a mild analgesic – served to deaden the consciousness
-After Jesus tasted this, he refused to drink it – he would be fully aware of everything that happened

-Victims were then thrown to the ground and their arms were nailed or tied to the crossbar (Romans appear to prefer nailing)
-Being thrown down would likely reopen some of the wounds on his back
-Archeological discoveries have found that the nails were tapered iron spikes ~5-7 inches long
-Ossuary findings indicate that nails were commonly driven through the wrists instead of the palms (this is also indicated on the Shroud of Turin)
-This is not a contradiction because many ancient cultures considered the wrist as part of the hand
-The Hebrew word for hand is inclusive from the fingertips to the area where a wristwatch would be located

-Studies have shown that the ligaments and bones of the wrist can support the weight of the body but the structures of the palms cannot

-Iron spikes would likely have been driven between the radius and carpal bones or between the two rows of carpal bones (either proximal to or through the flexor retinaculum [a strong band-like tissue] and the various carpal ligaments)
-No fractures would occur with this type of placement but there would be painful periosteal injury

-The nail would also crush or sever the large sensorimotor median nerve creating bolts of fiery pain in both arms
-It would be the equivalent of having a cattle prod stuck in your wrist with a constant electric shock going through your hand, wrist and arm
-The severed nerve would cause paralysis in part of the hand and ischemic contractures and impalement of various ligaments would likely cause a claw-like appearance of the hands

-After both arms were fixed to the crossbar, the patibulum and victim were lifted onto the stipes
-On the low cross several soldiers did this easily
-On the tall cross, ladders or wooden forks were used to accomplish this

-There are no clear records indicating on what type of cross Christ was crucified upon
-Archeology favors the Tau cross and tradition favors the Latin cross

-The only clue from scripture is that Jesus was offered a drink of soured wine from a sponge placed on the stalk of a hyssop plant (~20 inches or 50 cm long) → supports a short cross
-Do you recall where else the hyssop plant is mentioned in the Bible?
-Exodus 12:22 → during the Feast of the Passover the hyssop was used to apply the blood of the Passover lamb to the wooden doorposts of the Jews

-The feet were fixed to the cross with either nails or ropes
-Again, ossuary findings suggest that nails were the preferred Roman practice
-Feet could be nailed to the sides of the stipes or to a wooden footrest (suppedaneum); generally at this time they were nailed directly to the front of the stipes
-In order to allow for this, knee flexion was prominent and the bent legs may have been rotated laterally

-The iron spike would likely have been placed through the first or second intermetatarsal space just distal to the tarsometatarsal joint
-The deep peroneal nerve and branches of the medial and lateral plantar nerves would likely have been injured by the nail
-While scourging could cause immense amounts of blood loss, the crucifixion was relatively bloodless as no major vessels were injured
-Crucifixion was designed to avoid a quick and “easy” death
-The act of hanging by the arms often served to dislocate the shoulders

 

 

-Once nailing was complete, the titulus was attached to the cross by nails or cords
-Crowds and soldiers often taunted the condemned
-Soldiers routinely divided clothes among themselves
-Length of survival was generally hours to several days but was also dependant on the level of scourging that took place (longest known crucifixion was 9 days)
-During prolonged crucifixions, it was not uncommon for insects to burrow into open wounds, eyes, nose and ears; birds of prey would tear at open wounds
-We’re told in Mark 15:44 that Pilate was surprised that Jesus was already dead

-Death could be hastened by breaking the victim’s legs below the knees (crurifragium or skelokopia); this could lead to death from asphyxiation in only a few minutes
-John 19:31 tells us that because it was the day of Preparation, the Jews requested to have the legs of the three crucified men broken so they would die and could be taken off of the crosses before the Sabbath
-The two criminals had their legs broken but Jesus was already dead

-It was customary for the Romans to leave the corpse on the cross to be devoured by predatory animals
-Roman law did, however, allow for families of the condemned to take the body for burial after obtaining permission from the Roman judge
-No one was intended to survive crucifixion so the body was not released until the soldiers were sure the victim was dead
-We’re told in all four gospels that Joseph of Arimathea requested the body of Jesus (Matthew 28:57, Mark 15:43, Luke 23:50, John 20:38)
[Joseph was a prominent member of the Council who was awaiting the Kingdom of God]

-Again, when the soldiers went to break the legs of Jesus they found him to already be dead so instead he was pierced with a spear
-By custom, one of the Roman guards would pierce the body with a sword or lance
-Traditionally this has been considered a spear wound to the heart through the right side of the chest (easy access; right side of the heart is thinner and easier to impale)
-This was a method taught to the soldiers and would result in a fatal wound
-Standard infantry spears were 5-6 feet long and could easily have reached the chest of a man on a cross

Torture of the cross

-The major effect of the crucifixion (in addition to the intense amount of pain it inflicted) was the interference of normal respiratory patterns – especially exhalation
-Normal inhalation: the diaphragm moves down; the chest wall expands and air moves into the lungs
-Normal exhalation: the diaphragm moves up; the chest wall contracts and air is forced out of the lungs
-While on the cross, the weight of the body pulling downward on outstretched arms and shoulders would keep the intercostals muscles in an inhalation state, the body would also pull the diaphragm down → both would hamper passive exhalation
-Exhalation primarily would rely on the diaphragm and would be shallow
-This would cause development of hypercarbia and hypoxia leading to muscle cramps or tetanic contractions that would further inhibit respirations
-In order to exhale, one would have to push up on their feet, flex their elbows and adduct their shoulders
-This movement would place nearly all their weight on the tarsals and would create an intense searing pain
-Flexing the elbows would cause rotation around the nails in the wrist causing searing pain along the arms as well
-With each respiration, the movement across the rough wooden stipes would irritate and open the deep wounds across the victims back, causing continued pain with every breath
-Muscle cramps and paresthesias of the outstretched and uplifted arms would cause additional discomfort
-With each breath the victim would become increasingly tired and have agonizing pain
-The victim alternated lifting his body off of the sedulum allowing him to breathe and then slumping down onto the sedulum to relieve the intense pain felt in his feet again causing difficulty breathing

-As Jesus hung on the cross, every word was painful to utter and is therefore that much more precious
-He could only manage to say short phrases
-We are only aware of Christ speaking seven times from the cross
-He was only able to speak as he pulled up against the nails and drug his back against the cross

-Crucifixion wasn’t designed to kill outright but rather to maximize humiliation and torture
-The eventual breaking of the legs is what normally caused death as it hastened asphyxiation
-It could take multiple swings with a spear to finally break the tibia and fibula
-Wasn’t necessary for Christ (fulfilled Psalm 34 → “not a bone of his body shall be broken”)

What killed Jesus?

-There have been many speculations of the death of Christ
-The cause of death in Jesus’ crucifixion is thought by many to be multi-factoral but the two leading theories are hypovolemic shock and exhaustion asphyxia
-Shock seems less likely as individuals in shock loose consciousness and are not able to clearly converse with others → we know Jesus was alert and interactive and able to speak coherently until the time of his death (recognized Mary and John; his language was clear and made sense)

-During crucifixion, the altered breathing pattern would cause a respiratory acidosis to occur from the hypercarbia; the kidneys would no longer compensate as effectively due to blood loss
-The acidemia would cause tachycardia, fluid would then begin to back up in the lungs and the person would develop heart failure and possibly pleural effusions and pericardial effusions

-Could also see dehydration, cardiac arrhythmias are also suggested by some (again less likely as people loss consciousness)

-Some have speculated that Jesus crying out in a loud voice and then dying may have signified a catastrophic terminal event such as cardiac rupture
-In light of the scourging and crucifixion along with the associated hypovolemia,
hypoxia and possible alteration in coagulation there could have been small clots form on the aortic or mitral valves
-These could have dislodged and embolized into the coronary circulation causing
an MI
-Rupture of the left ventricular free wall is uncommon but has been reported in the first few hours following an MI

-All are speculative assumptions
-What do we know
-Jesus was severely beaten and taunted throughout this ordeal
-As he hung dying, soldiers cast lots for his clothing
-Just before death, Jesus stated that he was thirsty and was given a drink of sour
wine
-Wine vinegar is a product of fermentation (made from grape juice and yeast)
-The word literally means “that which is soured” and is related to the Hebrew term for “that which is leavened”
-Yeast or leaven is a Biblical symbol of sin
-When Jesus took this drink, which was leavened – it was symbolic of him taking the sins of the world into his body
-After only about 3-6 hours at approximately 3 pm, Jesus cried out in a loud voice, he bowed his head and died
-All of those around him, spectators and soldiers, recognized this as the point of his death
-The Jews did not want the bodies to remain on the crosses after sunset as it was the beginning of the Sabbath
-They asked Pontius Pilate to order the crucifracture so as to hasten the deaths of the three men
-Soldiers broke the legs of the thieves but when they came to Jesus, they saw that he was already death
-Instead, one of the soldiers pierced his side (likely with an infantry spear)
-This produced a flow of blood and water → we’ll come back to this in a minute
-The death of Jesus after only 3-6 hours on the cross surprised many including Pontius Pilate
-Later that day, the body was taken down and placed in a tomb of Joseph of Arimathea
-As it was late and the Sabbath was approaching, there was not time for the standard preparation of the body
-The disciples only had time to wrap the body quickly in a long linen cloth
-A mixture of aloes and myrrh were placed in the folds of the cloth to act as a preservative
-It has been estimated that ~65 lbs of preservative were used

-We also know definitively that the tomb was empty on the third day
-Plenty of evidence for this → that’s a whole other lesson

Blood and water

-Some have speculated that it was a miracle
-Must ask how God was glorified through this; what was the purpose?
-A miracle is unlikely
-Some have interpreted the water to be ascites or urine from an abdominal midline perforation
-The Greek word used by John indicates a lateral wound (often implies ribs)
-It seems more likely that the wound was in the thorax well away from the midline
-The side of the wound is not clearly delineated but has traditionally been considered to be on the right
-This approach would have allowed for more direct access to the thin walled right atrium or ventricle
-Many have raised points of disbelief regarding John’s description based on the order of blood followed by water → doesn’t make anatomical sense
-In ancient Greek the order of words denoted prominence and not necessarily sequence emphasizing the prominence of blood rather than its appearance before water
-The water that is described likely represents pleural and pericardial fluid and would have preceded the blood and would have been a smaller volume than the blood
-In the setting of hypovolemia and impending heart failure, pleural and pericardial effusions could have developed and added to the amount of “water” that was present
-The blood would have come from the right atrium, right ventricle or possibly from hemopericardium
-There is also a second theory for the “water”
-If you take a pint of blood, place it in a jar and allow it to sit for ~30 minutes the RBCs and plasma begin to separate (RBCs settle and plasma rises to the top)
-At the time Jesus had a spear thrust into his side, he was already dead
-It is theorized by some that the serum that rose to the top may be the “water” described

So what killed Jesus?

-We have evidence in the scriptures – no need for speculation
-Matthew 27:50 tells us that Jesus gave up his spirit or yielded his ghost
-The original Greek is aphiemi; used in other literature from that time period
-When used with a personal object, it translates as “to send forth, to send away, to let go or dispatch”; other translations include “to loose” or “to discharge”
-Interesting word to use in relation to dying
-Has the implication that Jesus’ dying was an act of will instead of something that happened to him

 

 

-What took our Lord’s life?

-He didn’t die as most victims of crucifixion did? His legs were not broken to cause asphyxia – he was already dead

-He did not die of shock – he was completely alert until the time of his death

-He did not die of a fatal arrhythmia – again he was cognizant

-No man took the life of Christ

-No Roman centurion

-No cross

John 10:17-18 → 17 The reason my Father loves me is that I lay down my life—only to take it up again.18 No one takes it from me, but I lay it down of my own accord. I have authority to lay it down and authority to take it up again. This command I received from my Father.”

-Christ could have ended the suffering and torture at any time
-He could have called down a legion of angels to bind up his torturers
-But he did not. He endured the scourging, the beating, the embarrassment and the crucifixion
-The physical suffering that Jesus endured was nothing compared to the anguish of his heart as he took upon himself the sins of the world and was separated for the first time in all of eternity from the Father

-Jesus did what no man before or since has been able to do. He laid his life down for us.
-When his work was finished, with a loud voice and with the authority of all of creation, he gave up his spirit; he willingly gave up his life to save you and me

“But he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for our iniquities: the chastisement of our peace was upon him; and with his stripes we are healed. All we like sheep have gone astray; we have turned every one to his own way; and the LORD hath laid on him the iniquity of us all.” – Isaiah 53:5-6

16 For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. 17 For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him. 18 Whoever believes in him is not condemned, but whoever does not believe stands condemned already because they have not believed in the name of God’s one and only Son. 19 This is the verdict: Light has come into the world, but people loved darkness instead of light because their deeds were evil. 20 Everyone who does evil hates the light, and will not come into the light for fear that their deeds will be exposed. 21 But whoever lives by the truth comes into the light, so that it may be seen plainly that what they have done has been done in the sight of God. John 3:16-21